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Spheres of exchange is a heuristic tool for analyzing trading restrictions within societies that are communally governed and where resources are communally available.〔Sillitoe, Paul (2006) "Why spheres of exchange?" ''Ethnology'' 45(1): pp. 1-23, page 1〕 Goods and services of specific types are relegated to distinct value categories, and moral sanctions are invoked to prevent exchange between spheres. It is a classic topic in Economic anthropology.〔 Paul Bohannan developed the concept in relation to the Tiv of Nigeria, who he argued had three spheres of exchange. He argued that only certain kinds of goods could be exchanged in each sphere; each sphere had its own different form of money. The term is also used in reference to gift economies. Similarly, Clifford Geertz's model of "dual economy" in Indonesia, and James C. Scott's model of "moral economy" hypothesized different exchange spheres emerging in societies newly integrated into the market; both hypothesized a continuing culturally ordered "traditional" exchange sphere resistant to the market. Geertz used the sphere to explain peasant complacency in the face of exploitation, and Scott to explain peasant rebellion. This idea was taken up lastly by Jonathan Parry and Maurice Bloch, who argued in "Money and the Morality of Exchange" (1989), that the "transactional order" through which long-term social reproduction of the family takes place has to be preserved as separate from short-term market relations. The introduction of money into communal societies where these sphere-of-exchange restrictions exist can disrupt resource allocation, by creating a pathway for exchange that is not accounted for in the existing restrictions.〔Sillitoe, Paul (2006) "Why spheres of exchange?" ''Ethnology'' 45(1): pp. 1-23, page 2〕 However, in some societies money has been more or less successfully integrated into spheres of exchange.〔Barth, Fredrik (1967) "Economic Spheres in Darfur" pages 156-157 and 164-165 ''In'' Firth, Raymond (editor) ''Themes in Economic Anthropology'' (ASA Monograph 6), Tavistock, London, pp. 149–74, ; reprinted with different pagination as ("Chapter 9: Economic Spheres in Darfur" ) pages 163-164 and 170-171 ''In'' Barth, Fredrik (1981) ''Process and form in social life: selected essays of Fredrik Barth: Volume I'' Routledge & Kegan Paul, London, pp. 157-178, ISBN 0-7100-0720-5〕 ==Tiv spheres of exchange== The concept of spheres of exchange was introduced by Paul Bohannan and Laura Bohannan in analyzing their field work with the Tiv in Nigeria.〔Sillitoe, Paul (2006) "Why spheres of exchange?" ''Ethnology'' 45(1): pp. 1-23, page 3〕 The Bohannan's discuss three types of ranked exchange objects, each restricted to its own separate exchange sphere; ideally, objects do not flow between spheres. The subsistence sphere included food such as yams, grains, vegetables, and small livestock, as well as eating utensils, farming tools and tools for food-preparation. The second sphere of wealth included brass rods, cattle, white cloth, and slaves. A third and most prestigious sphere was marriageable female relatives.〔Bohannan, Paul and Bohannan, Laura (1968) ''Tiv Economy'' Northwestern University Press, Evanston, IL, pages 227-228, 〕 "In calling these different areas of exchange spheres, we imply that each includes commodities that are not regarded as equivalent to those commodities in other spheres and hence in ordinary situations are not exchangeable. Each sphere is a different universe of objects. A different set of moral values and different behavior are to be found in each sphere."〔 As a result, it is considered immoral to use prestige objects to purchase goods from a lower sphere. Similar examples of exchange spheres have been noted by Frederik Barth among the Fur of Sudan; by Raymond Firth among the Tikopia in the south Pacific; by Bronislaw Malinowski in the Trobriand Islands off New Guinea amongst others.〔Sillitoe, Paul (2006) "Why spheres of exchange?" ''Ethnology'' 45(1): pp. 1-23, page 5-6〕 抄文引用元・出典: フリー百科事典『 ウィキペディア（Wikipedia）』 ■ウィキペディアで「Spheres of exchange」の詳細全文を読む スポンサード リンク
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